World Population Growth In May , the UN revised its previous projection of world population stabilization at 9 billion by , to a new projection of This recent change in projected world population increase is attributed to falling rates of infant and child mortality, a declining death rate from AIDS, a demographic momentum caused by earlier high fertility rates, and fertility patterns in South Central South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Due to these combined factors, even if the fertility of every country reached replacement level in , the world population would continue to climb, reaching 9. Some of these solutions include population control via sterilization, public campaigns to promote smaller families, national target population goals, aid incentives tied to population targets, financial incentives to have fewer children, and access to contraceptives and family planning services Connelly, The plan provided a year blueprint for action that required actions from both rich and poor countries UNFPAa, The gains include a decrease of the average number of children born per woman in every major region since and a decrease in infant mortality in every region in the past 15 years.
The gains that have not been realized since the Programme of Action are related to maternal and infant mortality and an unmet need for contraception.
A reduction in maternal mortality in poor countries has not been achieved; women are almost as likely to die as a result of pregnancy or childbirth in as they were in Wealthier women within low-income countries are much more likely to have a lower infant and maternal mortality rate than poor women due to their access to skilled medical care at childbirth, one of the factors that can prevent maternal and child and infant mortality.
Other factors that can prevent maternal, infant, and child mortality include access to clean water, proper sanitation, childhood immunizations, adequate nutrition and spacing births by two or more years. Unsafe abortion is another cause of maternal mortality; 13 per cent of maternal deaths are due to unsafe abortion, but in parts of sub- Saharan Africa, unsafe abortion is responsible for 30 to 40 per cent of maternal deaths UNFPA, a, p.
Finally, there is still an enormous unmet need for contraception: more than million women globally want to either delay their next pregnancy by at least two years or stop having children, but are not using a modern method of contraception UNFPAa, , p. The Context: Globalization In order to fully examine the intersections between population and environmental sustainability it is necessary to place the discussion within the context of globalization.
The negative impact on the balance of power between individuals and communities can be attributed to the global economic environment. This economic theory of capitalism encompasses the idea that some government interventions in the market and economy, including social protections such as social security and unemployment insurance, are necessary in order to promote and maintain social stability, order, peace and prosperity IFSW, ; Palley, Proponents acknowledge that neoliberal policies cause painful dislocations and disadvantages to some populations, but argue that this pain is a temporary necessity on the pathway to economic growth that will benefit all segments of society Wilson, Opponents argue that the evidence is mounting that increased economic and social inequality within and between countries is not temporary, but a permanent consequence of neoliberal policies IFSW, For example, the IMF and World Bank give loans to, and create debt repayment programs for, developing countries based upon their agreement to structural adjustment policies SAPs.
The goals of reproductive justice and environmental sustainability are compromised by these neoliberal economic policies, which produce negative affects in developed and developing countries, most negatively impacting the poor.
Historically and currently, policies and initiatives that have population stabilization as the goal are not targeted at white, first world women.
There is an unspoken understanding in this discourse that white first world women will not be asked or expected to have fewer children. Third world women and women of color in developing countries have been the targets of population control policies are racialized and gendered, and deny their agency.
Policies are gendered because population stabilization or control is aimed at women rather than men; women are the recipients of contraceptives or sterilization while men are not usually the targets of these interventions.
In the U. Contraceptives have been abused in similar ways. In countries as diverse as Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Peru, and Thailand reports show that women given these contraceptives are rarely informed that they are participating in a clinical trial or informed that the contraceptives can cause serious short-term and long-term adverse effects on health Nair, , cited in Gupta, Population Growth and the Environment in the Context of Globalization A postcolonial feminist social work perspective enables a historical, gendered and racialized analysis of global inequality in re-thinking the intersections between population and the environment in the context of globalization.
Neoliberal economic policies that countries must agree to in order to participate in the global economy are overlaid on pre-existing global inequalities created by colonization Gonzalez, and on pre-existing inequalities within countries of gender, class, religion, caste and ethnicity Deepak, The debt repayments that developing countries struggle to make can be traced, in part, to the legacies of colonialism.
When the U. The World Bank and the IMF stepped in to ensure that developing countries could pay their debts by offering new loans to countries that accepted SAPs as a way to restructure their economies Jauch, At the same time, developed countries maintain protectionism and subsidies, thus institutionalizing and perpetuating economic inequalities Gonzalez, , p. SAPs also require cutbacks in government spending on health care, wages, education and other social services, and the privatization of government-owned functions such as utilities and water Polack, The consequences of these policies for poor women and communities are severe, threatening both reproductive justice and environmental sustainability.
Many of the factors that can prevent child and maternal mortality are compromised through the impact of these policies on poor communities; lack of access to healthcare, adequate nutrition, clean water, proper sanitation, and childhood immunizations.
Cuts in social services and health result in a greater burden on women as they are often expected to take on the responsibilities of caring for the sick or needy in the family. Cuts in education services leads to an increase in illiteracy among women and girls Jauch, The impact of this compromise can be seen in the uneven progress of the Programme within countries, where wealthier women are making progress that poor women are not.
Environmental sustainability and the associated topic of climate change are gendered and racialized in the sense that poor women of color face greater barriers to environmentally safe living conditions, greater burdens from climate change, and are disproportionately impacted by disasters and environmental degradation caused by global warming UNFPAb, The differential impact of climate change on poor women as opposed to men is profound: Women—particularly those in poor countries—will be affected differently than men.
They are among the most vulnerable to climate change, partly because in many countries they make up the larger share of the agricultural work force and partly because they tend to have access to fewer income-earning opportunities. Drought and erratic rainfall force women to work harder to secure food, water and energy for their homes.
Girls drop out of school to help their mothers with these tasks. This cycle of deprivation, poverty and inequality undermines the social capital needed to deal effectively with climate change. UNFPAb, , p. Environmental sustainability is also compromised by the requirements of SAPs, which call for increased exports to generate foreign exchange to service debt. For developing countries, their most valuable exports include timber, oil and natural gas, minerals, cash crops, and fishery products.
In addition, the pressure to increase the production of export-oriented crops has a gendered effect. Re-thinking Population and Environment Policy The profession of social work is uniquely positioned to advocate for and create policies and programs that ethically address environmental sustainability and reproductive justice at multiple system levels.
A postcolonial feminist social work perspective facilitates a new way of analyzing the social problems of reproductive injustice and sustainability grounded in social work values. Policies must be reframed to embrace the goal of reproductive justice rather than reproductive health, and at the center of these policies must be self-determination and social justice.
Women, rich and poor, who want safe contraceptives, pregnancies and childbirth must be able to access these services, and this can only be achieved in the context of healthy, sustainable environments.
At a macro level, the economic philosophy of neoliberalism as applied to the policies and practices of the World Bank and the IMF must be examined closely and re-imagined and reformed in ways that will maximize the health and well-being of all people and their environments in both developing and developed nations.
This can be accomplished through multiple strategies including activism, education, advocacy, and research. At a mezzo level, women must join together with global and local allies to demand access to reproductive health services and environmentally sustainable communities.
At a micro level, women must have access to reproductive and general health services within the context of healthy communities. There are many calls for universal access to voluntary family planning services as one component of the range of policy responses to climate change Bryant et al, with assurances that low income is no barrier UNFPA, b. Substantial demographic research has demonstrated that when women and their partners can take advantage of client-focused family planning services, fertility falls UNFPA, b.
These voluntary family planning services must be available within the context of health services for all people. A postcolonial feminist social work perspective can be used in multiple areas for future research.
In the area of sex trafficking, this perspective could be used to examine the historical global conditions that contribute to this problem, examining closely the gendered and racialized power dimensions with a focus on growing global and local inequalities and lack of social safety nets and options that play a role in the escalation of the problem.
A postcolonial feminist social work perspective facilitates this task. This paper focused on the economic and political barriers rather than the social barriers on, as these are well addressed in policy documents and the literature UNFPA, a; UNFPA, b. In this paper, a postcolonial feminist social work perspective was used to reframe the discussion of population growth and sustainability to one that represents social work values of social justice and self-determination, promoting both reproductive justice and sustainability.
This perspective draws attention to the context of global inequality, produced historically by colonialism and currently by the economic dimensions of globalization, through international financial policies that threaten environmental sustainability and reproductive justice.
This perspective enabled an analysis of the intersections between population and environmental sustainability within the context of globalization that can lead to international, national and local solutions that are grounded in the principles of social justice and self-determination.
Human rights and structural adjustment. To browse Academia. Skip to main content. By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. Log In Sign Up. Download Free PDF. Anne C Deepak. Download PDF. A short summary of this paper. Feminist social work has contributed to significant political, cultural and economic successes for women; however, mirroring the history of U. Afflia: Journal of Women and Social Work, the only social work journal devoted to examining feminist social work, published a special issue on critical feminisms to which they had defined as a vital concern for the profession.
A postcolonial feminist social work perspective is offered in this article as a perspective that can fill this gap in feminist social work. These issues interfere with the adoption of theories that incorporate a global and historical perspective.
Postcolonial feminist theory is grounded in two of social work core values, self- determination and social justice, and is used in this article to analyze the problems of population growth and environmental sustainability within the context of globalization. This new theoretical perspective offers attention to the historical complexity of gendered and racialized power relations within and between systems, honors the agency of all women and reflects core values of social work, social justice and self-determination.
This perspective can shape policies that ethically promote both reproductive justice and environmental sustainability. Postcolonial feminist theory emphasizes the agency of third world women who have been characterized in discourses of colonialism and development as passive victims of timeless, oppressive religious and cultural traditions in need of being rescued Chatterjee, ; Mohanty, ; Spivak, Postcolonial feminist theory challenges these discourses as well as those of nationalism that characterize women as willing participants in oppressive patriarchal practices Spivak, Agency is recognized as partial and limited by a variety of historical and structural constraints.
Deepak, , p. It facilitates an understanding that population growth and sustainability are not simply about population control or reproductive rights, but about the safe and sustainable physical and social environments in which women can have and raise healthy children if they choose to. Women of color in the US involved in the reproductive justice movement articulate a postcolonial feminist social work perspective.
The term has been embraced by women of color in the US who are organizing to achieve the goal of reproductive rights within the context of social justice Asian Communities for Reproductive Justice, A postcolonial feminist social work perspective is crucial in facilitating an analysis of current and historical discourse and policy approaches to population growth and environmental sustainability leading towards re-envisioning policies and practices that address reproductive justice and sustainability.
World Population Growth In May , the UN revised its previous projection of world population stabilization at 9 billion by , to a new projection of This recent change in projected world population increase is attributed to falling rates of infant and child mortality, a declining death rate from AIDS, a demographic momentum caused by earlier high fertility rates, and fertility patterns in South Central South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
Due to these combined factors, even if the fertility of every country reached replacement level in , the world population would continue to climb, reaching 9.
Some of these solutions include population control via sterilization, public campaigns to promote smaller families, national target population goals, aid incentives tied to population targets, financial incentives to have fewer children, and access to contraceptives and family planning services Connelly, The plan provided a year blueprint for action that required actions from both rich and poor countries UNFPAa, The gains include a decrease of the average number of children born per woman in every major region since and a decrease in infant mortality in every region in the past 15 years.
The gains that have not been realized since the Programme of Action are related to maternal and infant mortality and an unmet need for contraception. A reduction in maternal mortality in poor countries has not been achieved; women are almost as likely to die as a result of pregnancy or childbirth in as they were in Wealthier women within low-income countries are much more likely to have a lower infant and maternal mortality rate than poor women due to their access to skilled medical care at childbirth, one of the factors that can prevent maternal and child and infant mortality.
Other factors that can prevent maternal, infant, and child mortality include access to clean water, proper sanitation, childhood immunizations, adequate nutrition and spacing births by two or more years. Unsafe abortion is another cause of maternal mortality; 13 per cent of maternal deaths are due to unsafe abortion, but in parts of sub- Saharan Africa, unsafe abortion is responsible for 30 to 40 per cent of maternal deaths UNFPA, a, p.
Finally, there is still an enormous unmet need for contraception: more than million women globally want to either delay their next pregnancy by at least two years or stop having children, but are not using a modern method of contraception UNFPAa, , p. The Context: Globalization In order to fully examine the intersections between population and environmental sustainability it is necessary to place the discussion within the context of globalization. The negative impact on the balance of power between individuals and communities can be attributed to the global economic environment.
This economic theory of capitalism encompasses the idea that some government interventions in the market and economy, including social protections such as social security and unemployment insurance, are necessary in order to promote and maintain social stability, order, peace and prosperity IFSW, ; Palley, Proponents acknowledge that neoliberal policies cause painful dislocations and disadvantages to some populations, but argue that this pain is a temporary necessity on the pathway to economic growth that will benefit all segments of society Wilson, Opponents argue that the evidence is mounting that increased economic and social inequality within and between countries is not temporary, but a permanent consequence of neoliberal policies IFSW, For example, the IMF and World Bank give loans to, and create debt repayment programs for, developing countries based upon their agreement to structural adjustment policies SAPs.
The goals of reproductive justice and environmental sustainability are compromised by these neoliberal economic policies, which produce negative affects in developed and developing countries, most negatively impacting the poor. Historically and currently, policies and initiatives that have population stabilization as the goal are not targeted at white, first world women.
There is an unspoken understanding in this discourse that white first world women will not be asked or expected to have fewer children. Third world women and women of color in developing countries have been the targets of population control policies are racialized and gendered, and deny their agency.
Policies are gendered because population stabilization or control is aimed at women rather than men; women are the recipients of contraceptives or sterilization while men are not usually the targets of these interventions.
In the U. Contraceptives have been abused in similar ways. In countries as diverse as Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Peru, and Thailand reports show that women given these contraceptives are rarely informed that they are participating in a clinical trial or informed that the contraceptives can cause serious short-term and long-term adverse effects on health Nair, , cited in Gupta, Population Growth and the Environment in the Context of Globalization A postcolonial feminist social work perspective enables a historical, gendered and racialized analysis of global inequality in re-thinking the intersections between population and the environment in the context of globalization.
Neoliberal economic policies that countries must agree to in order to participate in the global economy are overlaid on pre-existing global inequalities created by colonization Gonzalez, and on pre-existing inequalities within countries of gender, class, religion, caste and ethnicity Deepak, The debt repayments that developing countries struggle to make can be traced, in part, to the legacies of colonialism.
When the U. The World Bank and the IMF stepped in to ensure that developing countries could pay their debts by offering new loans to countries that accepted SAPs as a way to restructure their economies Jauch, At the same time, developed countries maintain protectionism and subsidies, thus institutionalizing and perpetuating economic inequalities Gonzalez, , p.
SAPs also require cutbacks in government spending on health care, wages, education and other social services, and the privatization of government-owned functions such as utilities and water Polack, The consequences of these policies for poor women and communities are severe, threatening both reproductive justice and environmental sustainability.
Many of the factors that can prevent child and maternal mortality are compromised through the impact of these policies on poor communities; lack of access to healthcare, adequate nutrition, clean water, proper sanitation, and childhood immunizations.
Cuts in social services and health result in a greater burden on women as they are often expected to take on the responsibilities of caring for the sick or needy in the family. Cuts in education services leads to an increase in illiteracy among women and girls Jauch, The impact of this compromise can be seen in the uneven progress of the Programme within countries, where wealthier women are making progress that poor women are not.
Environmental sustainability and the associated topic of climate change are gendered and racialized in the sense that poor women of color face greater barriers to environmentally safe living conditions, greater burdens from climate change, and are disproportionately impacted by disasters and environmental degradation caused by global warming UNFPAb, The differential impact of climate change on poor women as opposed to men is profound: Women—particularly those in poor countries—will be affected differently than men.
They are among the most vulnerable to climate change, partly because in many countries they make up the larger share of the agricultural work force and partly because they tend to have access to fewer income-earning opportunities.
Drought and erratic rainfall force women to work harder to secure food, water and energy for their homes. Girls drop out of school to help their mothers with these tasks. Nutrition - Europe - History. New countries and old countriesAn interlude: changes in mortality transition in the eighteenth centuryNutrition and infant mortalityFactors relating to infant mortality in the ancien regime. Did diet improve in the eighteenth century?
The standard of living and real wagesStature, living conditions and food. Tuscany with respect to wheat prices in Siena, Life expectancy at birth for some European populations in. See Full Reader. Post on Oct 25 views. Category: Documents 0 download. Tags: history of population social history population growthwas mortalityand population thesebranches of history social control work epidemiological history demographic behaviour.
The University has printedand published continuously since Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of the copyright holder. Re-issued in this digitally printed version A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication dataLivi-Bacci, Massimo. Food supply - Europe - History.
L58 New countries and old countriesAn interlude: changes in mortality transition in the eighteenth centuryNutrition and infant mortalityFactors relating to infant mortality in the ancien regime VI 5 Food and standard of living: hypotheses and controversies 79Soundings in a vast seaBread and meatNew crops.
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